10 August 2019
Slides at: https://rebrand.ly/Nagoya2019-Part1-JP
GitHub: https://github.com/jorgetendeiro/Nagoya-Workshop-10-Aug-2019
Fraud = 科学における不正行為.
今日は科学における不正行為そのものについては 詳しくお話しません.
もっと発見しにくくて撲滅するのが難しいものについてお話します:
Questionable research practices (QRPs).
John, Loewenstein, & Prelec (2012) によって作られた用語.
See also Simmons, Nelson, & Simonsohn (2011).
(John et al., 2012; Schimmack, 2015).
Bem (2004):
“(…) [L]et us (…) become intimately familiar with (…) the data. Examine them from every angle. Analyze the sexes separately. Make up new composite indices. If a datum suggests a new hypothesis, try to find further evidence for it elsewhere in the data. If you see dim traces of interesting patterns, try to reorganize the data to bring them into bolder relief. If there are participants you don’t like, or trials, observers, or interviewers who gave you anomalous results, drop them (temporarily). Go on a fishing expedition for something– anything– interesting.”
これは探索的研究であることがはっきり書かれていない限りダメである.
Daryl Bem氏は2011年の予知に関する有名な論文の著者である
(今日の後半部分でこのデータを使います).
コーネル大学のBrian Wansink教授.
His description of the efforts of a visiting Ph.D student:
I gave her a data set of a self-funded, failed study which had null results (…). I said, “This cost us a lot of time and our own money to collect. There’s got to be something here we can salvage because it’s a cool (rich & unique) data set.” I had three ideas for potential Plan B, C, & D directions (since Plan A had failed). I told her what the analyses should be and what the tables should look like. I then asked her if she wanted to do them.
Every day she came back with puzzling new results, and every day we would scratch our heads, ask “Why,” and come up with another way to reanalyze the data with yet another set of plausible hypotheses. Eventually we started discovering solutions that held up regardless of how we pressure-tested them. I outlined the first paper, and she wrote it up (…). This happened with a second paper, and then a third paper (which was one that was based on her own discovery while digging through the data).
これは クリエイティブ または 型にはまらない考え方といったものではない.
これは QRPing (問題ある研究活動)である.
興味深いことに、研究における不正行為は長い間懸念されてきた (see Babbage, 1830).
参考までに:
数名の研究者は、現在の研究における現状はそれ程悪くないとしている(e.g., Fiedler & Schwarz, 2016).
残念ながら, (まだ)そうはならない.
ちなみに、(2019年7月の)日本の研究グループ(九州大学)でも研究の事前登録がなされています:
Ikeda, A., Xu, H., Fuji, N., Zhu, S., & Yamada, Y. (2019). Questionable research practices following pre-registration [Preprint]. doi: 10.31234/osf.io/b8pw9
それはインセンティブ(誘因)と深く関係がある (Nosek, Spies, & Motyl, 2012; Schönbrodt, 2015).
しかし, 忘れてはならないのは, 研究者の最善の意図を持ってしても問題ある研究活動は起こり得るということである.
Munafò et al. (2017)
つい最近(Makel, Plucker, & Hegarty, 2012).
我々がいかに不完全に仮説を立てているか (see Gelman):
“It is not unusual that (…) this ad hoc challenging of auxiliary hypotheses is repeated in the course of a series of related experiments, in which the auxiliary hypothesis involved in Experiment 1 (…) becomes the focus of interest in Experiment 2, which in turn utilizes further plausible but easily challenged auxiliary hypotheses, and so forth. In this fashion a zealous and clever investigator can slowly wend his way through (…) a long series of related experiments (…) without ever once refuting or corroborating so much as a single strand of the network.”
Low-powered experiments (検出力の低い実験):
“(…) It was found that the average power (probability of rejecting false null hypotheses) over the 70 research studies was .18 for small effects, .48 for medium effects, and .83 for large effects. These values are deemed to be far too small.”
“(…) it is recommended that investigators use larger sample sizes than they customarily do.”
See here.